Writers must always distinguish which parts of the essay are the ideas of others by including a citation of the source used in the text. Students must do this every time they summarize, paraphrase, or quote another individual’s work. All internal citations correspond to an external citation on the “References” page. For example, if a particular internal citation contains the author’s last name, then the reader can go to the “References” section and find that author’s name with the other corresponding information to learn more about that source.  

Internal Citation Examples for Books and Articles in Scholarly Journals: 

If you use the author’s name in the text: 

Garza (2007) noted that although cats appear to be more intelligent than dogs, dogs actually use similar problem-solving strategies. 

If you don’t use the author’s name in the text: 

Self-proclaimed “cat ladies” often admit that they have never owned dogs, and their “cat lady” traits were inherited from either parent or both (Garza, 2007). 

If using a quotation of fewer than forty words, the reference goes after the closing quotation mark. 

Important note: When paraphrasing, page numbers are optional. However, when using a direct quote, the page number(s) where you found that quote must be included in the citation.  

Garza (2007) went on to explain that the “preference of either dogs or cats is indicative of other personality traits” (p. 15).  

If the quote is more than forty words, it should be separated from the text, and quotation marks should be omitted; the reference goes one space after the ending punctuation. 

Having been an owner of both cats and dogs for over 20 years, Garza (2007) explained: 

Both dogs as well as cats can be great companions. Dogs typically can be counted on to bring positive energy and happiness to the home, while cats, although very independent, can provide a similar level of comfort to their owners. (p. 43) 

Other Internal Citation Examples: 

If you are using a source that has two authors: 

Despite common belief that all dogs and cats are completely domesticated, one should use caution when approaching stray dogs and cats (Garza & Cheatum, 2008). 

*Note: Use “&” only in parenthetical citations . . . spell out “and” in the text.* 

If you are using a source that has three or more authors: 

Some stray animals make an easy transition into their adopter’s home, thus demonstrating that they were most likely someone’s pet in the past (Garza et al., 2009).  

If you are using a source that has a corporate or group author: 

Unfortunately, dogs are the most abused animals in the United States (PETA, 2008). 

If you are using two or more sources in the same sentence: 

Many studies (Ladel, 2015; Strongson & Soren, 2012; Svedka, 2007) have concluded dogs experience mental disorders, like humans. 

If you are using a book or longer work that has no author listed: 

If you are bringing a new dog into a home where a dog already resides, introduce the new dog in a neutral setting, such as at a park or while on a walk around the neighborhood, to avoid conflict (Adopting Your Newest Family Member, 2014). 

If you are using an article or shorter source that has no author listed: 

When housetraining your dog, do not use your dog’s crate as punishment, as accidents will happen during the training process (“Housetraining 101,” 2014). 

If you are using a source that has no author listed and no date listed: 

During the housetraining process, put your puppy on a routine or schedule that is fixed and does not conflict with yours (“Housetraining: Creating a Routine,” n.d.). 

If you are using a secondary source (one source citing another): 

Although an avid animal lover, Montalvo (2005, as cited in Garza, 2007, p. 11) argued that “there is no place for pets within the home; they are meant to live outdoors only.”  

Indirect citing of sources should be avoided, except in cases where the original source is unavailable or inaccessible  

If you are using a religious work: 

For all religious texts, you must include an in-text citation indicating the book, chapter,  

verse, and translation. 

Ex1:  

“For He will give His angels charge concerning you, to guard you in all your ways” (The New American Standard Bible, 1971/1995, Psalms 91:11). 

Note: “1971” signifies the original publication year, while “1995” signifies the year of the republished edition being cited. If the original publication year of a religious text is unknown or debated, include only your source’s publication year. However, when citing a version of a religious text that has a definite publication date (like the New American Standard Bible), include the original version year and the year it was republished. 

Ex2:  

“Praise be to Allah, Lord of the Worlds, the Beneficent, the Merciful” (The Qur’an, 1:2-3, 1996). 

If you are quoting someone that you interviewed: 

When I was at the pet store, Sandra Woof (personal communication, September 30, 2007)  

told me to “play with dogs every day to develop lasting bonds.” 

My friend often tells me that “dogs are ‘the bomb’” (A. Garza, personal communication, 

September 30, 2007). 

If you are using tables, charts, pictures, graphs, figures, or other (non-textual) illustrations: 

• Label tables and figures numerically; ex: Table 1, Table 2/Figure 1, Figure 2. Any illustration other than a table will be labeled as a figure. 

• If the paper includes an appendix with tables and figures, label them with the appendix letter, followed by the number that indicates the order in which they are listed. Ex: Table A1 is the first table in Appendix A; Figure C4 is the fourth figure in Appendix C. 

• Tables and figures are usually not cited in the “References” section. 

Citing a table: 

Below the table, include a note that explains abbreviations, symbols, and/or data. If the table is adapted from a source, you will acknowledge the source’s author, as well as “Copyright [Year] by the Name of Copyright Holder.”  

Ex1 (Journal Article):  

Note. F = fleas; NF = no fleas. Each column includes a different breed. Adapted from “An Analysis of the Presence of Fleas in Different Breeds,” by P.J. Sullivan, B. Kyr, and A.T. Woof, 2001, The Dog Journal, 88, p. 676. Copyright 2009 by the American Pet Association. 

Some golden retrievers were mixed breeds. 

*p < .05. 

 
Ex2 (Book):  

Note. T = treat; t = time. Adapted from My Puppy and Me (p. 66), by P.J. Sullivan, 2006, Notarealbook Press. Copyright 2006 by Petco. Ex3 (Website):  

Note. T = treat; t = time. Adapted from “My Puppy and Me,” In Petco, by P.J. Sullivan, 2008. http://www.petco.com/articles/sullivan/mypuppy. Copyright 2008 by Petco. 

Citing a figure: 

Below the figure, you will write the exact same citation for a table, except you will indicate the figure number and a phrase that serves as a title and description. 

Ex: 

Figure 3. Picture illustrating the aggressive dog fighting stance. WP = weak point. The numbers 1-4 indicate the order of attack. Adapted from “Dog Fighting for Dummies,” In DogWatch, by P.J. Sullivan, 2011. http://www.dogwatch.com/dogfighting. Copyright 2011 by Dog Watch. 

How should italics be used in APA references? 

Titles of full publications and periodicals should be italicized, e.g. books, newspapers, journals, TV shows, albums, and so on. Other sources that are considered standalone (i.e. sources not part of a larger work) are also italicized, e.g. webpages, data sets, photographs, social media posts, YouTube videos, dissertations, and so on. 

What gets put in quotes? 

Quotation marks are only needed in the References section if they are part of the original title. Example: The effectiveness of the “Cloverleaf” learning model in early childhood education 

What gets italicized AND put in quotes? 

Italics and quotation marks are used for titles of full publications, periodicals, or other standalone sources that have quotation marks as a part of the title. 

Case studies from the “Recover Your Life” addiction recovery program 

Where can I find publication information in a book I want to cite? 

Publication information such as the publisher and copyright date usually can be found on the back of the title page of a book. These items and other miscellaneous information are usually found before the “Table of Contents” page. 

Where can I find the information I need on a website? 

The bottom of most web pages usually contains the copyright holder and year of publication. The copyright holder is usually the publishing organization. If you cannot find the information, then on the “References” page leave the author blank; put “n. p.” for “no publisher,” and put “n.d.” for “no date.” Please note that if you cannot find the article title, author, or organization, you may want to reconsider using that site as a source, as it is less likely to be credible. 

Can I just put the URL as my citation in the References page? 

No. You will, however, need to include it as part of your References section (see pg. 3 for instructions on how to cite a web page). 

Are articles from the library databases formatted the same way as websites? 

No. Database entries have their own format, as do books, journal articles, and other web documents from databases. 

If you are citing a book: 

Author last name(s), Author initial(s). (Year). Title in italics (Edition [# ed.], Volume [Vol. #] [if listed]).

Publisher.   

Smith, T. J. (1952). My travels in the forest (13th ed.). Notarealbook. 

Note: Proper nouns are still capitalized in the title. 

Smith, T. J. (1952). My travels in the United Kingdom (13th ed.). Notarealbook. 

If there are two authors: 

Malfoy, D., & Longbottom, L. (2011). Potions of death: What they are and how to make them. Notarealbook. 

If there are three to twenty authors: 

Granger, H., Potter, H., Lovegood, L., Weasley, G., & Weasley, R. (2014). On the run: How we spent our last

year of school dodging Death Eaters. Notarealbook. 

If there are more than twenty authors: list the first nineteen names, followed by an ellipsis, then the very last name that appears in the work. 

Lovegood, L., Potter, H., Weasley, R., Lupin, R., Lestrange, B., Pettigrew, P., Malfoy, D., Weasley, G.,

Weasley, F., Weasley, G., Black, S., Snape, S., McGonagall, M., Hagrid, R., Dumbledore,

A., Grindewald, G., Moody, A., Trelawney, S., Flitwick, F., . . . & Malfoy, L. (2020). The wizarding

world: A retrospective. Magic Quarterly, 17, 34-42. 

If you are citing a book with only an editor (or editors): 

Editor name(s) followed by (Ed. or Eds.). (Year). Title in italics. Publisher. 

Burgundy, R. (Ed.). (2013). Stories (almost) as awesome as me. Notarealbook.  

If you are citing a work in an anthology or a chapter in a book. 

Author. (Year). Title of chapter or entry.  In A. A. Editor (Ed.), Title of book (page range). Publisher.  

Oakenshield, T. (2013). Looking for the Arkenstone. In B. Baggins & F. Baggins (Eds.), Tales from beneath

the Lonely Mountain (pp. 103-132). Notarealbook.  

If you are citing an article in a print journal: 

Author. (Year). Title of the article.  Journal Title, volume number(issue number), pages.  

Skywalker, L. (1976). Study of light sabre wounds in clones. Jedi Quarterly, 12(2), 23-45.  

If you are citing an online journal 

Use the format for a print journal but add the DOI (or the website URL if there is no DOI). The DOI is formatted as follows: https://doi.org/doinumber 

Kirk, J. T. (2281). Crushing the Kobayashi Maru: Why there are no unwinnable situations. Starfleet Officer

Digest, 12(2), 1-8. https://doi.org/10.5654/j.wiml.2281.06.007  

If you are citing a website: 

Author (or corporate author). (Full date of publication). Title of document. URL 

Everdeen, K. (2013, November 13). Making your first bow. http://www.mockingjaymarksman ship.com/

making_your_first_bow.html 

If you are citing a religious work: 

Religious works follow the standard book citation. 

The Qur’an. (M. Pickthall, Trans.) (1996). Amana Publications. 

If you are citing a personal interview, private letter, etc.: 

APA does not require you to add personal communication into the references. Instead, you will write an in-text citation that includes the source’s name, “personal communication,” and full date (if available). Below is how it should look in the text: 

Johnson (personal communication, May 5, 2015) stated that dogs fight better than cats.  

OR 

Dogs fight better than cats (J. Johnson, personal communication, May 5, 2015). 

If you are citing a film or motion picture: 

Producer, F.M. (Producer), & Director, F.M. (Director). (Year). Title of motion picture [Film]. Studio or

distributor. 

Kurtz, G. (Producer), & Lucas, G. W. (Director). (1977). Star wars episode IV: A new

hope [Film]. 20th Century Fox. 

When writing in Chicago, you will need to provide a bibliography that lists all sources used in your paper. The bibliography appears at the end of the document on its own page(s). To cite these sources within your paper, you will use footnotes, which appear at the bottom of the same page a source is used. Below are different types of sources, including how to format them for the bibliography (B:), and as foot/endnotes (N:).  For more comprehensive guidance on inserting notes into a paper, refer to our “Footnotes and Endnotes” handout.

Formatting Templates

A book with a single author:

B: Author’s last name, Author’s first name. Title in Italics. Publication City: Publisher, Year of publication. 

N: ^#Author’s first name Last name, Title in Italics (Publication city: Publisher, Year of

publication), page(s) cited.

A book with more than one author:

B: Author I’s last name, Author I’s first name, and Author II’s first and last names.

Title in Italics. Publication City: Publisher, Year of publication.

N: ^#Author I’s first name last name, Author II first name last name, and Author III first name last name, Title in

Italics (Publication city: Publisher, Year of Publication), page(s) cited.

A book with an author and an editor:

B: Author’s last name, Author’s first name. Title in Italics. Edited by Editor’s first name Editor’s last name.

Publication City: Publisher, Year of publication.

N: ^#Author’s first name Last name, Title, ed. Editor’s first name Last name (Publication city: Publisher, Year of

publication), page(s) cited.

A book with only an editor:

B: Editor’s last name, Editor’s first name, ed. Title in Italics. Publication City: Publisher, Year of

publication.

N: ^#Editor first name Last name, ed., Title in Italics (Publication city: Publisher, Year of                             

publication), page(s) cited.

A work or chapter in an anthology or a chapter in a book:

B: Author last name, Author first name. “Title of Chapter or Story.” In Anthology or Book Title, edited by

Editor’s first name Last name, Pages. Publication City: Publisher, Year of publication.

N: ^#Author first name Last name, “Title of Chapter or Story,” In Anthology or Book Title, ed. Editor’s first name

Last name, Pages, (Publication city: Publisher, Year of publication), page(s) cited.

A journal article (online):

B: Author’s last name, Author’s first name. “Title of Article.” Journal Title volume number, issue number (date

of publication): Pages. Accessed Month Day, Year. DOI or URL.

N:  ^#Author’s first name Last name, “Title of Article,” Journal Title Volume Number, Issue Number (date of

publication): Page(s), accessed Month Day, Year, DOI or URL.

A website:

B: Author’s last name, Author’s first name (or Name of Owner or Sponsor if no Author). “Article Title.”  Name

of Website, Month Day, Year of Publication. Accessed Month Day, Year, URL.

N: ^#Author’s First name Last name, “Title of Web Page,” Name of Website in Italics, Day Month, Year of

publication, URL.

An encyclopedia or dictionary (usually only cited in notes):

N: ^#Title of Encyclopedia or Dictionary, edition number, s.v. “Title of Entry,” accessed month day, year, URL.

One source quoted in another:

B: Quoted author’s last name, Quoted author’s first name. “Title of Article.” Title of Quoted Book (Month Year

of publication): Pages. Quoted in Author’s first name Author’s last name, Title of Book. Publication

City: Publisher, Year of publication.

N: ^#Quoted author’s first name Last name, “Title of Article,” Title of Quoted Book (Month Year

of publication): Pages, Quoted in Author’s first name Last name, Title of Book (Publication city:

Publisher, Year of publication. Page(s) cited.

Chicago notes-bibliography style requires the writer to use either footnotes or endnotes in addition to bibliographic citations.  Footnotes appear at the bottom of every page that references one or more sources, whereas endnotes are placed at the end of the document on a separate page. Notes tell readers where information is coming from, providing comprehensive source details so that readers can locate the sources on their own. Page 1 of this guide explains how to insert notes in a document, while the remainder provides a model for how they should look.

Every time writers quote or paraphrase a source’s words, they must cite it using a note. To do this, follow these steps:

Inserting a footnote using MS Word

1. Place the cursor directly after the quote or paraphrase (outside the quotation mark or punctuation).
2. In Microsoft Word, click the “References” tab.
3. Select “Insert footnote.” A superscript numeral will appear after the sentence or phrase, and your cursor will automatically shift to the notes section at the bottom of the page
4. Where the corresponding numeral appears at the bottom of the page, type out a full citation for the source. (For what to include, please see our citations handout).

NOTE: Writers only need a full citation the first time they cite a source. Instructions for shortening subsequent notes of the same source are described below.

Shortening notes

After citing a source for the first time, writers should shorten the note when citing it again. Below are the two conditions for doing so and how to handle each.

1. Future citations of the same source require only the author’s name, a shortened version of the source title (no more than four words), and page number(s). If there is no author, use a shortened version of the source title.
2. When citing the same source in consecutive notes, the writer can replace the full citation in consecutive notes with the word, “Ibid.,” followed by the page number (if page number is different from the previous citation).

An example paragraph with footnotes:

            Garza notes that although cats appear to be more intelligent than dogs, dogs actually use similar problem solving strategies.^[1] Moreover, self-proclaimed “cat ladies” often admit that they have never owned dogs, and their “cat lady” traits were inherited from either parent or both.^[2] Garza goes on to explain that “Preference of either dogs or cats is indicative of other personality traits and underlying morals.”^[3] In addition, the author describes cats as almost always being significantly less loyal than dogs. She goes on to describe the occasional affectionate behaviors of cats as a ploy to get what they want from their owners.^[4] On the contrary, there have been documented cases in which cats protect infant children from perilous situations.^[5] Further, although these cases are rare, they do demonstrate that cats can be trustworthy companions.^[6] Thus, perhaps the reason that Garza’s depiction of cat and dog people has been proclaimed as one of the best 100 animal science books of all time is that she views the topic from both perspectives:^[7]

Both dogs as well as cats can be great companions. Dogs can typically be counted on to bring positive energy and happiness to the home, while cats, although very independent, can provide a similar level of comfort as dogs to their owners. If you are wondering whether you should adopt a dog or a cat, personality is key. There are exceptions, but generally, dogs tend to be active, vocal companions, whereas cats are often quieter pets that value their naps. Matching your pet’s personality to your lifestyle can help ensure a successful owner-pet relationship that is fulfilling to both you and your pet.^[8]

^[1] Ashly Garza, Dog People Versus Cat People (San Antonio: Animal University Press, 2007), 1.

^[2] Ibid., 2.

^[3] Ibid., 4-5.

^[4] Ibid., 14.

^[5] Ibid., 15.

^[6] Ibid., 16.

^[7] National Animal Science Association, “Teacher’s Top 100 Animal Science Books for Professionals in the Field,” accessed July 2, 2014, http://www.asa.org/grants /teachers-top-100-animal-science-books-for-professionals.html.

^[8] Garza, Dog People versus Cat People, 17.

APSA uses a “references” page instead of “works cited.” The references page is organized alphabetically by author. If there are several works by the same author, they should be in chronological order with the earliest work first, but each author’s name will be replaced with a 3-em dash (---). If the author’s name is repeated with another author’s name as well, DO NOT use the 3-em dash.  

For books:

One author

Author name. Year. Book title. Place of publication: Publisher (well-known cities do not need the state. If state is needed, use postal acronym [MN, TX]). Chapter and page numbers should only be in the citation and not in the reference.

Black, Henry S. 2004. The Clinton Scandal: The Whole Truth. Houston: Umbrella Co.

Two authors

Author last name for the first author, first name, and next author. Year. Book title. Edition.

Place of publication, State: Publisher.

Helsinki, Jane J., and John Paul Johansson. 1971. American Democracy. 2^nd ed. Randolph, TX: Vinson,

Timothy.

Edited Collection

Editor names, eds. Year. Book title. Place of publication: Publisher.

Terry, Patrick, Rita Roman, and Rusty O. Gordon, eds. 1955. Communism and Western Society. Chicago:

Hanson Press.

Chapter in a Multiauthor Collection

Author name. Year. “Chapter title.” In Title of work, eds. Editor names. Place of publication: Publisher, page numbers. (If citing another chapter, follow this format. If it is a single-author work, cite the work as a whole.)

Sherman, Manuel K. 1990. “Leadership and Foreign Policy: A Study of the World’s Most Effective

Presidents.” In Foreign Policy Leadership, eds. Silva P. Silver and Jackie Chandler. Los Angeles:

Gonzalez-Scotts, 133-152.

Multivolume Work

Entire collection

Author. Year. Title of work. # vols. Place of publication: Publisher.

Farquaad, Lorde. 1960. The History of Duloc. 5 vols. Trans. Robin Hurlburt. Dallas: Vintage Books.

Specific Volume

Author. Year. Title of work. Edited by editor. Vol. # of Title of collection. Place of publication: Publisher.

Farquaad, Lorde. 1960. The Pursuit of Knowledge. Vol. 5 of The History of Duloc. Trans. Robin Hurlburt.

Dallas: Vintage Books.

NOTE: In this example, the works were translated (“Trans.”) by someone else (“Robin Hurlburt”). When using a translated work, be sure to include this information in the citation.

Journal Articles

Author. Year. “Title of Article.” Title of Journal volume (month, season, OR issue number, in that order): page numbers.

Dallier, Millie H. 2012. “An Analysis of President Obama’s Campaign.” American Presidential Review 101

(January): 666-89.

Electronic Journals

Author. Year. “Title of Article.” Title of Journal any additional information provided (month and day). Full retrieval path (Accessed month day, year).

Swagman, Roxanna. 1976. “Political Imagery: Professional Design in Campaign Ads.” Fornes: A Journal for

Students of Design in the Campaign Environment 9 (5). http://english.ttu.edu/-kairos/2.1/features/

browning/index.html (accessed November 22, 1988).

Older Works

Author. [Original year published] Year of republish. Title of Work. Ed. Current editors. Place of publication: Publisher.

Freeman, Jeffrey, and Charlie Angels. [1925] 1972. The Pacifist’s Manual. New York: Saxon-Gamble.

For Government Documents:

Congressional Reports and Documents

U.S. Congress. House or Senate. Committee. Year. Title. Congress. Session, report or document number or committee print number.

U.S. Congress. Senate. Committee on Veteran’s Affairs. 1967. The Absolute Drunkenness Act. 67^th Cong.,

7^nd sess., S. Rept. 2967.

U.S. Congress. Senate. 1965. Report of the Food and Drug Administration on Pizza Hut Corporation. 57^th

Cong., 7^st sess., S. Doc. 27, pt. 67A.

Hearings

U.S. Congress. House or Senate. Committee. Year. Title. Congress. Session, exact date.

U.S. Congress. Senate. Committee on Family Feud. 1973. Show me: Families. 101^th Cong. 3^st sess., 31

May.

Statutes

Name of statute. Date. Source (U.S. Code or Statutes at Large). Vol. #, sec. #, p. #.

Grand Pool Ball Masters Act. 1968. Big Ol’ Laws. Vol. 65, sec. 17, p. 315.

Congressional Debates

Congressional Record. Year. Congress, session, vol. #, pt (part).

Congressional Record. 1963. 98^th Cong., 5d sess., vol. 167, pt. 23.

Presidential Proclamations and Executive Orders

President’s name. Year. Title or description. Federal Register, vol. #, no. #, p. #.

Lincoln, Abraham. 1865. Free the Slaves Act, Proclamation 1234. Federal Register, vol. 11, no. 7, p. 115.

Executive Department Documents

Corporate Author. Year. Title of Work. Place of publication: Publisher. (If author and publisher are the same, repeat the name or use an acronym)

U.S. Department of Homeland Security. Bureau of the Security Guards. 2007. Numerical Summary of a

Nation. Washington, D.C.: Department of Homeland Security.

Treaties

Corporate Author. Year. Treaty Name, date. Treaty series (ex. TIAS), vol. #, pt. #.

U.S. Department of the Interior. 1962. Big Bombs Fund Stoppage, 31 May. TIAS no. 5567. U.S. Monies and

Other Fun Stuff, vol. 17. pt. 7.

National Archives

Corporate author. “Title.” File (if relevant). Record group. National Archives.

U.S. Congress. Senate. Committee on the Committees. “Excessive Talking.” File 74C-B43. Record group 77.

National Archives.

Legal References

Case. Year. Volume. Source. Page on which case begins (district of any lower federal court). (Older cases identified recording clerk’s name, rather than a source title)

Jerry v. Larry. 2013. 445 U.S. 789.

Knope v. Swanson. 2010. 123 F. Supp. 2341 (E.D. Tex).

Lennon v. McCartney. 1970. 2 Stanch 207.

Websites

Author’s name. Year. “Title of Work.” Complete work (if applicable). Month and day. URL (date of access).

Haverford, Tom, Chris Pratt, and Ben Wyatt. 2012. “Understanding Parks and Recreation: Finding Comic

Relief within Local Government.” May 7. http://gpro.parksandrec.gov/treatyoself.shtml (accessed

October 23, 2014).

Magazine Articles

Author. Year. “Article Title.” Name of Magazine. Month, day, page numbers.

Sanders, Colonel. 2014. “On the Plight of Chickens.” Positively Astute, December 25, 2014.

APSA is the preferred style of the American Political Science Association. It is the style used by those in government and political science. APSA follows the latest edition of the Chicago Manual of Style with some differences. https://connect.apsanet.org/stylemanual/

Formatting:

Title

Title should have a 12-word maximum

Margins

The paper should have 1 ½” margins on all sides. Only the left margin is justified. At least 11-point font should be used.

Abstract

The abstract should be no longer than 150 words. The abstract will state the research problem, method, findings, or conclusions. It should be a summary of the overall paper.

Headings

Primary

Secondary

Tertiary. Text starts here.

In-Text Citation:

The main rule to follow for in-text citation is last name of author(s), year of publication (n.d. if unavailable), and page or chapter number (ONLY if it is a quote from a specific page or chapter, NOT if it is the entire work).

There are different ways to cite in-text. For example:

1. (Wallgren 2012).
2. …see Wallgren 2012.
3. Wallgren (2012) …

For multiple authors, the same rule applies. Cite like this:

1. (Wallgren, Manderson, and Prince 2012).
2. Four or more use “et al.”

For multiple works by the same author, use semicolons:

1. (Wallgren 2011; 2012)

Many students will be citing government documents or publications. There are several ways to cite these works.

1. For Legal Citations
   1. Name of the case (in italics except the “v.”) or statute and year
      1. Case: (Bakers v. Carter 1975)
      2. Statute: (Money and Pounds Act 1952)
   2. For Government Publications
      1. If the name is too long, using a short form or acronym is allowed after the first reference
         1. U.S. Supernatural Puppy Commission (1945, 12; hereafter USSPC) and all successive references to this commission would be written as USSPC (1945, 12).

To get to the library databases:

1. Go to www.uiw.edu.
2. At the top right of the page, click “library.”
3. Under “Search Collections,” click “Databases.”
4. Click “Subject List.”
5. You can select a multi-purpose database, such as Academic Search Complete, or you can select a subject to bring up a list of databases that focus on that specific subject.
6. Enter keywords to search for relevant articles.

Choosing keywords

Keywords are words or short phrases that describe your paper topic. The database searches for your keywords in titles and texts of articles to find sources that might be relevant to your topic.

1. Finding the appropriate keywords is essential because sometimes one keyword will not elicit many relevant sources. If you search several combinations of keywords, you will be able to find more sources related to your topic. For example, if one of your keywords is finance, you may want to also search financial, money, or finances.
2. Narrowing your search may reduce the number of irrelevant sources. By including the word AND, the database will only find articles with all the keywords included. For example, you could search monkeys AND intelligence to avoid getting all the sources that include the word monkeys.
3. Searching an entire phrase can be helpful, but use caution. If you search The Great Depression, some databases may show you sources that include those words, but they may not be in that order. For example, the database may show you an article that includes the sentence “Teens may experience a great amount of depression after a break-up.” To weed out those articles, put quotation marks around the phrase. Example: “The Great Depression.”

Determining if the source is relevant

Most articles contain an abstract. If the title seems to be relevant, take the time to read the abstract, which is usually no more than 500 words. The abstract will give you a summary of the information contained in the article. If the article still seems relevant after you read the abstract, then you can proceed to read the full article. This will help you spend your time reading articles that are relevant to your topic.

Saving the article for future reading

You should save all the articles you plan to use as sources for your paper. If a PDF icon is visible, you can download the PDF. If the PDF is not immediately available, there are other ways to retrieve the full article. You can click "check SFX for full text." In some cases, there is a link under the subtitle Full Text, which will direct you to a website where you can download the full article. If not, you can request the document through Interlibrary Loan. You sign in to Interlibrary Loan with your UIW ID and password. This service allows you to request sources not available at UIW. If the article is available through Interlibrary Loan, the school will email you a PDF in a few days.  

A thesis is a statement of your essay’s main point, typically only one sentence in length.  It may also be helpful to think of a thesis as the purpose of an essay or a claim that will be supported by evidence.  Every sentence in an essay should somehow be related to the essay’s thesis statement.  The approach used in creating your thesis will depend on what type of essay you are writing.  Here are the three categories of essays and examples of an effective thesis statement for each:

1. Informative (compare/contrast, how-to, definition, classification, report, summary, cause/effect, research paper): “The initially dominant and impressive ancient Egyptian Empire eventually declined as a result of inferior war technology and civil war between the northern and southern regions.”
2. Argumentative (literary analysis or criticism, persuasive, proposal, critique): “College students should be required to live in a foreign country for at least two weeks, as such a requirement would increase worldliness and cross-cultural understanding.”
3. Narrative (descriptive, creative): “An internship at Super Cool Recordings allowed me to network with other talented professionals and helped me realize that I want to pursue a career as an audio engineer because the process of capturing and manipulating sound is fascinating.”

Tips for Writing a Thesis Statement

• If you can choose your topic, write about a subject you are passionate about or fascinated by.
• Try to identify if there is a gap in what is published about your essay topic.
• Ask yourself what the primary purpose of your essay is.
• Come up with a research question about your essay topic that can be converted into an arguable and focused thesis statement before you begin researching.
• After conducting enough research, ask yourself if your research question was answered. Identify if there is a consensus or a pattern among sources.
• Think of your research question’s answer as your thesis statement.
• Get a friend to ask you, “What are you trying to say with this paper?” or “What is your paper’s main point?”
• Evaluate your thesis statement’s potential for negative feedback.
• Remember that you can always revise or change your thesis.

If you need feedback on your thesis, contact your professor or ask a WLC tutor.

1. Introduction Paragraph
   1. Present your topic.
   2. Give reasoning for why your topic is significant or interesting.
   3. Thesis statement: a brief statement that summarizes the main idea of your essay and is supported by evidence and/or examples. 
      1. Example for an informative essay: “Although the era of slavery in America was traumatic for all slaves, it was traumatic in very different ways for male and female slaves, as there were certain advantages and disadvantages to being a slave of either sex.”
      2. Example for an argumentative essay: “MP3 technology is superior to CD technology because an MP3 player is more convenient for travel due to its size. MP3 files take up less storage space and can be safely stored on multiple devices, while CDs can be easily damaged.”
      3. Example for a narrative essay: “The ancient martial art of Jujitsu taught me greater self-discipline, patience, and how to defend myself and others against physical threats and assault.”
2. Body Paragraphs Everything between the introduction and conclusion comprises the body of your essay. Make sure you include each of the following in your body paragraphs:
   1. Transition/topic sentence: consists of a transition word or phrase followed by the introduction of the new paragraph’s subject. The transition may even be a separate sentence.
      1. Ex: “Another devastating effect of acid rain is structure damage." 
   2. Evidence that supports the paragraph’s point: Avoid plagiarism by citing any information that is not yours. Quotes, paraphrases, and summarizations must all be cited.
   3. Concluding statement: Don’t end with a quote or detail that you assume stands on its own. Draw a conclusion from the evidence you’ve presented.
3. Conclusion Paragraph
   1. Restate your thesis but change the wording, structure, or both.
   2. Summarize the main points of your body paragraphs.
   3. Mention possibilities for future study or discussion of this subject.
      1. Ex: “More examination of how income and education level are related will hopefully bring a greater awareness of the cycle of poverty.”

There vs. Their vs. They’re

“There” is used to refer to a location, or it can be used to show that something exists.

Example: There are two children over there on the jungle gym.

 “Their” is an irregular possessive, like his, hers, or mine. It does not get an apostrophe.

Example: Their teacher is not paying close attention.

“They’re” is a contraction of “they are” and gets an apostrophe.

Example: They’re arguing because one is not going fast enough for the other.

Its vs. It’s

“Its” is an irregular possessive, like his, hers, or mine. It does not get an apostrophe.

Example: The card house you built collapsed under its own weight.

 “It’s” is a contraction of “it is” and gets an apostrophe.

Example: It’s funny because I did not spend hours building a card house.

Your vs. You’re

“Your” is an irregular possessive, like his, hers, or mine. It does not get an apostrophe.

Example: Your hard work will be rewarded.

“You’re” is a contraction of “you are” and gets an apostrophe.

Example: You’re getting closer to finishing.

Whose vs. Who’s

“Whose” is an irregular possessive, like his, hers, or mine. It does not get an apostrophe.

            Example: We know whose dog is the cutest.

 “Who’s” is a contraction of “who is” and gets an apostrophe.

            Example: I have no idea who’s the cutest dog.

I vs. Me vs. Myself

“I” is used as a subject.

Example: I do not understand this.
“Me” is used as an object.

Example: It confuses me.

“Myself” is either an emphatic pronoun or a reflexive pronoun and is usually used if the writer has already used “I” in the sentence.

Example: I must show myself that I can do this.

Then vs. Than

“Then” usually refers to timing or cause/effect.

Example: The Spurs defeated the Thunder, and then they beat the Heat.

“Than” is used to show comparison.

Example: The Spurs were better than the Thunder and Heat this year.

Affect vs. Effect

“Affect” is a verb that shows influence.

            Example: The success of the Spurs will affect their position in the upcoming draft.

“Effect” is a noun that usually refers to the results of an action.

            Example: The success of the Spurs is an effect of how well they play as a team.

Who vs. Whom

“Who” is the subject of a verb.  (To test if “who” is correct, use the word “he” instead, and if the sentence works, use “who.”)

            Example: Who ate all of the candy? (He ate all the candy?)

“Whom” is the object of a verb. (To test if “whom” is correct, use the word “him” instead, and if the sentence works, use “whom.”)          

            Example: You gave my last cream-filled chocolate egg to whom?” (You gave my last cream-filled chocolate egg to him?)

Neither vs. Either

“Neither” groups words together with negative phrasing and is paired with “nor.”

            Example: I like neither peas nor broccoli.

“Either” groups words with neutral or positive phrasing and is paired with “or.”

            Example: I like either fries or tots.

To vs. Two vs. Too

“To” is either a proposition before a noun or an infinitive before a verb.

            Example: I need to finish my dinner before I go to the freezer for ice-cream.

“Too” is an adverb meaning also. It can also be used to show an excess.

            Example: I ate too many tacos, and he did, too.

“Two” is the written form of the number 2.

            Example: “One bowl of ice cream would have been wiser than two.”

Compound Sentences – You may use a comma with a coordinating conjunction to join two independent clauses that are closely related. You may use a semicolon without a coordinating conjunction.

Good Examples:

1. You may use a comma with a coordinating conjunction to join two simple sentences, or you may use a semicolon instead of a comma.
2. You may use a comma with a coordinating conjunction to join two simple sentences; otherwise, you may use a semicolon.

Complex Sentences – When you have an independent clause and a dependent clause, you need a comma if the dependent clause comes first.

Good Examples:

1. If the dependent clause comes first, you need a comma.
2. You do not need a comma if the dependent clause comes second.

Appositives and Appositive Phrases – Use commas to separate words or a phrase added after a noun that modifies or adds further information about it.

Good Examples:

1. Appositive phrases, used to add additional information about a noun, need to be separated from the rest of the sentence with commas.
2. Words used to modify a subject or add meaning to it, or appositives, need to be set off with commas.

“And” is not always preceded by a comma.

• If the word “and” is used to join two nouns or other words into a group, then a comma is not needed.

A Good Example:

Commas are often used with conjunctions and with series.

• If the word “and” is used as part of a compound subject or predicate, then a comma is not needed.

A Good Example:

Misplaced commas and semicolons can be confusing to writers and readers.

Run-on Sentences – Joining two or more independent clauses (simple sentences) without proper punctuation or a coordinating conjunction is a run-on sentence.

A Bad Example:

This is not a sentence it is a run-on. (Needs either a semicolon or both a comma and a coordinating conjunction after “sentence.”)

(***Coordinating conjunctions include the following: For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, So. You can remember this by using the acronym, “FANBOYS.”

Comma Splices – Joining two (or more) sentences or phrases with just a comma is a comma splice. Essentially, it is a run-on with a comma.

A Bad Example:

This is not a sentence, it is a comma splice. (Needs a coordinating conjunction after the comma.)

Sentence Fragment – A group of words that is not an independent clause because it is missing either a subject or predicate or is not a complete thought is a sentence fragment.

                A Bad Example:

                Using complete sentences is important. Just like using proper spelling.

Introductory words or phrases – Words or phrases at the start of the sentence that add context or connect ideas but are not part of the main point of the sentence are set off with a comma.

Good Examples:

1. Simply stated, this sentence has an introductory phrase that needs a comma.
2. Additionally, this sentence has an introductory phrase.

Using “because” at the beginning of a sentence – Using “because” at the beginning of a clause makes it dependent since the clause no longer expresses a complete thought. A dependent clause needs to be connected to an independent clause to make a complete thought.

A Good Example:

Because the dependent clause comes first, it is okay to start this sentence with “because.”

A Bad Example:

Because this is not a complete thought. (This leaves the reader wondering about the result.)

Present tense is used to convey something that is presently occurring.  Simply put, it is happening in the present (regardless of whether it has also happened in the past or will continue to happen in the future).  For example:

I am happy that the Spurs won.

She goes to work at 8 o’clock every morning.

The stars are beautiful tonight.

Past tense is used when talking about something that has already occurred and is no longer occurring.  The action being described must no longer be happening.  For example:

She bought a new laptop.

I went fishing this weekend.

Future tense signifies that something is yet to occur.  The simple form of a verb is usually used in combination with will or shall or with am, is, or are followed by going to.  The tense of the verb can also be defined by the use of an adverb such as “tomorrow.”  For example:

I will probably have a sandwich for lunch.

I am going to go to the gym.

Would you like to go to a movie later?

Present progressive tense is used to describe something that is continuing to occur at the time it is being written about.  This tense combines am, is, or are with a verb ending in ing.  For example:

I am eating potato chips.

Are you going to the store?

Past progressive tense conveys something that happened at the same time during which something else was happening.  Just like with regular past tense, the subject matter being discussed must have already ended.  Past progressive tense combines was or were with a verb ending in ing.

I was taking a nap when you called me.

They were all smiling when I took the picture.

Future progressive tense addresses something that will happen in the future and will continue to happen.  It combines will be or shall be with ing.  For example:

We will be going to South Padre for Spring Break.

They will be serving cake and ice cream at the party.

Present perfect tense combines has or have with the past participle form of a verb to convey something that has already begun but is ongoing.  For example:

She has traveled all over the world.

We have eaten lunch there every Sunday for the past month.

Past perfect tense conveys the occurrence of something that happened before something else.  Both events must have already happened and concluded.  It combines had with a past participle.  For example:

When I arrived downtown, the parade had already passed through.

Future perfect tense addresses something that is going to happen before something else that is also going to happen.  Future perfect tense combines will have with a past participle.  For example:

When we finally get to the party, everyone will have already been there for a few hours.

Present perfect progressive tense addresses something that has already begun, is still happening, and will continue to happen.  It combines has or have been with a present participle.  For example:

I have been wanting to check out that new restaurant.

Past perfect progressive tense is used when writing about an ongoing past action that occurred before another past action.  It uses had been in conjunction with the present perfect form of a verb.  For example:

Before you came over, I had been listening to music for a few hours.

Future perfect progressive tense addresses an ongoing future occurrence that will happen before a certain point in time.  It combines will have with a present participle form of a verb.  For example:

As of next week, I will have been dating him for two years.

What is a preposition?

Prepositions are words or phrases that relate words to one another. Prepositions can be used to relate place, direction, manner, place in time, and amount. 

A few common prepositions are to, at, and on. They can be used as follows:

• She went to the beach yesterday.
• I have a meeting at three o’clock.
• There is a spider on the bathroom wall.

What is a prepositional phrase?

Prepositions accompany a noun or pronoun, known as the object of the preposition. The object of the preposition normally follows the preposition itself, and when these words are combined, a prepositional phrase is formed. Prepositional phrases are normally formed as follows:

preposition + modifier (optional) + object of preposition (noun or pronoun)

For example:

1. To the beach. "To" is a preposition, and "the beach" is the object of the preposition. 
2. At three o'clock. "At" is a preposition, and "three o'clock" is the object of the preposition. 
3. On the bathroom wall. "On" is a preposition, "the bathroom" is a modifier, and "wall" is the object of the preposition. 

Prepositional phrases are found within sentences and can never stand as complete sentences on their own, as the subject of the sentence is always outside of the prepositional phrase.  The following examples show where the prepositional phrase occurs in each sentence:

• She went to the beach.
• I have a meeting at three o’clock.
• There is a spider on the bathroom wall.

Where can I learn more about prepositions?

• For more information on how to use prepositions, visit the Purdue Online Writing Lab at https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/multilingual/multilingual_students/prepositions/index.html 

Transitions connect the ideas in your writing.  It is a common misconception that a transition’s purpose is to make writing sound more ornate or sophisticated, but the real reason transitions are important is because without them, a logical progression of ideas is nearly impossible.  Transitions link your ideas together, show how they are related, and allow readers to understand them better. 

There are three different types of transitions: 

Transition paragraphs:

• Summarize the content of the previous paragraph before moving on to a new one with a different point 
• Good for long, complex essays 
• Should also show how the previous paragraph’s point is related to your thesis statement.

• Show a connection from one paragraph to the next 
• Show how paragraphs are linked by summarizing the previous paragraph and showing how the main idea of the next paragraph is related 
• Can be an entire sentence, a word, or a short phrase, and typically is placed in the first sentence of the next paragraph  

• Used to move from one idea about the paragraph’s main point to another 
• Can also be used to link the main point to an example of the main point 
• Can be one word or a short phrase – but is usually very brief 

Transitions between the different ideas make your paper easier to follow.  For example, you may transition between two organized paragraphs of an argumentative paper about the nature of pitbull dogs like this: 

Paragraph X:  [Reviews others’ arguments supporting the view that pitbulls are not naturally violent.]  

Transition (Last sentence of Paragraph X or first sentence of Paragraph Y):  However, this argument does not take into account all of the evidence that pitbulls are confrontational and dangerous animals by nature. 

Paragraph Y:  [Arguments support the view that pitbulls are naturally violent.] 

Here, the transition word “However” suggests to the reader that a different idea or set of ideas is about to be presented, thus making the relationship between the two different parts of your paper clear. 

Common Transitional Words and Phrases

Feedback is an essential part of the writing process. As a writer, you must be able to receive feedback. However, it is important also to know how to give constructive feedback in dealing with other writers. Keeping that in mind, remember the following when giving feedback: 

1. Feedback is not the same thing as criticism. At its best, feedback should be positive, negative, and neutral. It is not a chance to attack or get even with someone who criticized your paper. If you want your feedback to be well received, you need to point out what works in addition to what does not.  
2. Feedback can, and sometimes should, take the form of a question. Anything that you have a question about can be used as feedback. You might ask the writer, “What did you mean when you wrote ______?” Another example could be “Where did this information come from?” This is especially useful if you think the writer forgot a citation.  
3. Feedback should not be personal; it should be about the writing, not the writer. The purpose of giving feedback on writing is to improve the document in front of you and help the writer grow in his or her craft, not to tell the writer what he or she is doing wrong. In addition, feedback that is all negative often causes the writer to tune out the reviewer. Feedback that is all positive may keep the writer’s attention, but it also leads to the belief that there is no room to improve, which is not likely the case.  
4. Feedback must be useful and free of bias. Personal taste has no place in giving feedback. It is important to recognize the difference between something well written that you do not like and something that is not written well. This is especially true in persuasive writing. As a reviewer, your opinion on the subject is irrelevant. What matters is if the writer does his or her job in citing examples and evidence in the presentation of his or her ideas.  
5. Feedback must be clear and complete. Telling a writer something does or does not work without explaining why does the writer no good. Just as the writer’s background knowledge may cause the omission of important information, the reviewer’s can as well. 
6. Be prepared to answer questions about feedback without taking it personally. Writing can be a very personal thing, and taking feedback on something personal can make the writer defensive. In addition, if the writer does not understand your feedback, asking for clarification can at least show that the writer is paying attention to it. 
7. Feedback is not a mandate. In the end, you are not getting graded on the paper, the writer is. You can advise the writer in what you feel is the best way to help with his or her writing, but ultimately the writer has the final say on what goes into the paper and what does not. It does not mean that the writer doesn’t value your feedback, just that he or she doesn’t agree with it. 

No matter your skill as a writer, the ability to receive and use feedback is important. All writers, from students in Composition I to published authors, need feedback. Keeping that in mind, remember the following when receiving feedback: 

1. Feedback is not the same thing as criticism. At its best, feedback should be positive, negative, and neutral. No writer is great at everything, and very few are awful at everything. If the feedback you receive is either all bad or all good, get a second opinion. This is especially true of those who only give good feedback. While those who only give negative feedback are at least pointing out where you can improve, those who only give positive feedback are allowing you to believe that you have no room for improvement. 
2. Feedback should not be personal and should not be taken personally. It is an important part of the writing process. No writer is perfect, and even the best writers use editors. Novelists go through many drafts before a book is ever published. Scientists’ work is peer-reviewed prior to publication. Those giving feedback are trying to point out either strengths or weaknesses for the purpose of helping you improve as a writer. 
3. You do not have to agree with all feedback. When you turn in a paper, the person who gave you the feedback is not getting the grade, you are. It is ultimately you who will decide what will go into your paper and what will not. However, you should at least listen to it and evaluate the usefulness of all the feedback you get.  
4. What may be obvious to you may not be to the reader. The reader does not share all of your background knowledge. Something may appear to be an A>B>C relationship to you, but the reader, who does not have the same knowledge base as you, may see it as A>C>E, wondering where B and D went. Telling someone they need to change the universal belt in their ’95 Jeep for it to run better may be accurate, but if he or she does not know what a universal belt is or how to change it, then the feedback is less helpful. 
5. It is okay to ask questions about feedback. Yes, feedback often needs feedback. If you do not understand what the reviewer is saying, you cannot use the feedback. Ask for clarification, examples, or alternative ideas. Asking the right questions can turn useless feedback into useful feedback. It also lets the person giving feedback know you are paying attention and will increase the likelihood of getting useful feedback again. 
6. Feedback is useless if you ignore it. Feedback is a chance to improve, to grow, or to refine or build a skill set. Do not waste the opportunity. Even if you disagree with it, you at least have another perspective. 

What is Plagiarism? 

Plagiarism simply means that you have used someone else’s work (exact words, ideas, images, and so on) in your writing without giving proper credit. According to UIW’s Policy on Academic Integrity, plagiarism is the “appropriation of another’s work in one’s own written work offered for credit.” UIW also constitutes the unauthorized reuse of one’s own work, or the “turning in of the same work to more than one class without consent of the instructor involved,” as academic dishonesty. 

Any time you use someone else’s work without giving him or her credit, you are plagiarizing. This may include copying word-for-word, changing certain words, or using another person’s ideas without properly citing him or her. It is also possible to plagiarize scientific information, art, music, and many other forms of media. Even if you do not plagiarize on purpose, using someone else’s work without giving due credit is still plagiarism. 

Why is Understanding Plagiarism Important? 

Plagiarism is considered unethical in school and in the professional world: if you do not give the original author credit, you are telling the reader that you came up with the idea on your own. Most professors will outline their policy regarding plagiarism in their syllabi. These policies range from receiving an “F” on the plagiarized assignment to failing the course and being reported to the university. It is not unheard of for students to get dismissed from an institution due to plagiarism-related offenses. 

How to Avoid Plagiarism 

In order to avoid plagiarism, you need to be certain that anything you are stating without citation is your own idea. To make sure that you are properly expressing your own ideas and not the author’s, you should take careful notes on your topic and make sure you distinguish the author’s ideas from your own. You must properly cite the sources that you quote or paraphrase. It is important to note carefully where each piece of text comes from so that you can create an accurate bibliography. 

• Cite as You Write 

As soon as you add any information or direct quotes to your paper, add your citation. The more you practice doing so, the more it will become second nature.   

Otherwise, you will find yourself having to go back through pages of notes, articles, and books in search of the exact spot where the material is located. It is not enough to include a list of sources at the end of your paper.   

You must show throughout the assignment which points came from others and which are yours.  Citing credible sources shows how much work you have done and also signals to your reader (in this case, your professor) that the information in your paper is reliable. 

• Quotations 

There are many times when using quotations will be more effective than paraphrasing. If you decide to quote, make sure to provide the proper citation for the format you are using. Use quotations any time you use someone else’s exact words or when referring to technical terms that are not common knowledge. Even if you only use a few words and not an entire sentence, make sure to include quotation marks. 

• Paraphrasing 

You should paraphrase whenever you are using the author’s ideas but do not need to quote the text directly. When you paraphrase, make sure to convey the author’s ideas accurately and include an in-text citation. Make sure to include a citation for any information that is original to the author and not considered common knowledge. 

• Bibliographies 

At the end of your paper, make sure to include an accurate Works Cited or References page that includes each source you cite in-text.  

Whether you are e-mailing a professor, colleague, co-worker, or boss, it is absolutely essential to understand and practice proper e-mail etiquette. Writing well is a powerful tool in any field-- it allows you to be heard, to be understood, and to be successful. E-mail correspondence can say a lot about the person you are, regardless of whether the recipient has directly met you or not. It may be the one opportunity you have to make an impression, so make it count!

Steps to writing a professional e-mail:

1. Include a subject. Keep the subject short and appropriate to the e-mail’s content. Use key words and information so the sender has a good idea of what the e-mail is about. If you are including an attachment in the e-mail, keep the file name meaningful and professional.
2. Begin with a greeting. For formal e-mails, begin with “Dear” followed by the professional form of the recipient’s name (Dr., Mrs./Ms., Mr., Professor).
3. State your purpose. It is important to make your purpose clear early on before moving into the main text of your e-mail. The entire e-mail should be brief (no more than one screen length when possible).  Vary your sentence structure. Remember that several very short sentences together may make your message sound abrupt. 
4. Closing remarks. Thank your reader again and add a courteous closing remark before you end the e-mail, such as “Thank you for your consideration.” Then, follow up with “I look forward to hearing from you.” 
5. End with a closing. Keep the ending professional. “Sincerely,” “Best regards,” and “Thank you” are all appropriate. Endings such as “Yours truly,” “Best Wishes,” and “Cheers” are better for casual and more personal e-mails.

Proofread!  Read your e-mail again to ensure proper grammar, punctuation, and spelling.

Quick E-mail Tips

• Make sure your e-mail address is professional. Consider making a separate e-mail account for professional correspondences.
• Don’t use text talk or slang.
• Before you click send, be sure to proofread for clarity, grammar, spelling, etc. If you’re unsure about anything, ask someone to look over your e-mail.